| If one watched the NBA Finals in 1998, even if | | | | Interestingly, Gardner's Logical-Mathematical |
| not a Chicago Bulls fan, one would have to be | | | | Intelligence employs practically the same |
| amazed to witness the graceful maneuvers of | | | | description. |
| Michael Jordan in the air above the basketball rim. | | | | Morgan (1983) indicates cognitive theorists have |
| In the same context, to hear the brilliant vocal | | | | identified three basic sensory modes of interacting |
| performance of Luciano Pavarotti may move one | | | | with the environment. They are kinesthetic, visual, |
| to ask if, in fact, it does require a special and | | | | and auditory (verbal thinking). It is with "verbal |
| distinct intelligence to master such demanding | | | | thinking" we draw a close comparison to |
| demonstrations of human brilliance. Or what of | | | | Gardner's Linguistic Intelligence - "sensitivity to |
| the complex interpersonal skills needed by a | | | | meanings of words...(and) sensitivity to different |
| therapist to successfully establish rapport and | | | | functions of language (p. 266). |
| assist individuals to make helpful and lasting | | | | In criticism of Gardner's Musical Intelligence, |
| change? For years, especially in the education | | | | Morgan (1983) argues the auditory component of |
| circles, most believed such talents were the | | | | cognitive learning styles appears to be very similar |
| periphery of true intelligence. | | | | to pitch, timbre, and expressiveness in Gardner's |
| Howard Gardner, a Harvard University professor | | | | description of Musical Intelligence. Also, how does |
| and author of Frames of Mind , believes each | | | | one measure one's appreciation of the forms of |
| performance mentioned above requires a unique | | | | musical expression? Cognitive theorists have also |
| and distinct intelligence. When Jordan evades | | | | been somewhat skeptical of Musical Intelligence |
| defensive players while skillfully controlling the ball, | | | | based on *End States* due to the fact the |
| and leaps just at the right moment to both draw | | | | various sensory modes often mature at various |
| a foul on the opponent and score a goal, | | | | stages in a child's life, so how can we predict |
| demonstrates what Gardner terms | | | | Musical Intelligence based on these *End States?* |
| bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. When Pavarotti | | | | Also, we must not neglect the importance of a |
| thunderously exhorts a musical score from an | | | | child being raised in a competitive home where |
| Italian Opera, he draws upon musical intelligence. A | | | | music is encouraged. A child, for example, with |
| therapist likewise taps into interpersonal intelligence | | | | moderate ability to perform early in life, with |
| to fulfill the requirements of that profession. | | | | encouragement, motivation, and interest, could |
| There are four other distinct intelligences of which | | | | excel in music later in life. |
| Gardner argues to be unique and separate: | | | | Gardner's definition of Spatial Intelligence includes |
| logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, and inter | | | | the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world |
| intrapersonal. Logical-mathematical intelligence is | | | | accurately and to perform transformations on |
| sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or | | | | one's initial perceptions (Gardner, 1983). Concerning |
| numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of | | | | the cognitive style, Breadth of Categorization, |
| reasoning. This intelligence would be demanded of | | | | Kogan (1976, p. 60) describes it as the ability to |
| a mathematician or scientist. Conversely, a poet | | | | set boundaries, either narrow or broad, around a |
| or journalist would require high linguistic intelligence: | | | | central focal exemplar. According to Morgan, |
| sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings | | | | Spatial Intelligence as described by Gardner is |
| of words; sensitivity to the different functions of | | | | highly compatible with the cognitive style |
| language. Spatial intelligence requires the capacity | | | | construct of Breadth and Categorization (p.267). |
| to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and | | | | Individuals with broad categorizing cognitive styles |
| to perform transformations on one's initial | | | | have a greater capacity to perceive the |
| perceptions. Explorers such as Christopher | | | | visual-spatial world and match Gardner's concept |
| Columbus would have required high spatial | | | | of Spatial Intelligence. Holtzman & Klein, |
| intelligence to navigate uncharted waters. Finally, a | | | | (1954); Santosteno, (1964); Israel, (1969) referred |
| unique and separate intelligence termed inter | | | | to these attributes as leveling and sharpening. |
| intrapersonal enables one to have knowledge of | | | | Within the visual/figural (spatial thinking) mode of |
| one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and | | | | leveling and sharpening, one discovers a striking |
| intelligences - a blessing to any therapist who may | | | | similarity to Gardner's "capacity to perceive the |
| have clients with such distinct intelligence. | | | | visual-spatial world...and to perform |
| In researching multiple intelligence, I came across | | | | transformations on one's initial perceptions" |
| dozens of articles, book chapters, and similar text | | | | (Morgan, 1983. p 267). |
| associated with Gardner's concepts of multiple | | | | There is a striking similarity within Gardner's |
| intelligence (MI). The basic concepts of MI theory | | | | Bodily-Kinesthetic category (abilities to control |
| is confined within Frames of Mind (1983). | | | | one's body movements and handle objects |
| According to many researchers such as H. | | | | skillfully) with the work of cognitive style |
| Morgan, Professor of Early Childhood at West | | | | investigations related to sensory modalities and |
| Georgia College, the theory that multiple factors | | | | motor control. Kinesthetic (motoric thinking), is one |
| contribute to what is generally considered | | | | of three cognitive style basic modalities found |
| intelligence is not new (Morgan, 1996). As early as | | | | within the framework of Gardner's Linguistic |
| the 18th century Christian Wolff wrote of a | | | | Intelligence. Motoric thinking as described in |
| facultas appetiva and a facultas cognoseitiva - a | | | | cognitive style theory is essential to body |
| faculty for willing and a faculty for knowing. | | | | movement and control (Morgan, 1983, p. 267). |
| Later, German philosophers added a third faculty | | | | Other criticisms of Gardner's Bodily-Kinesthetic |
| for feeling. In 1939, Louis Thurstone of the | | | | theory is delineating between non-competitive |
| University of Chicago had published evidence for | | | | performance and athletic performance on the |
| seven independent mental abilities - verbal | | | | playing field. According to Elias, (1979); Einstein, |
| comprehension, word fluency, numerical fluency, | | | | (1979); Fiske, (1977) allude to a sensory-active |
| spatial visualization, associative memory, speed of | | | | cognitive style that tends to guide the information |
| perception and reason (Miller, 1983). C.P. Snow's | | | | processing for certain individuals, such as Black |
| observation that intellectual life had become | | | | and Hispanic students. In other words, the |
| organized into two mutually uncomprehending | | | | information processing for the athlete on the |
| groups, with literary intellectuals at one pole and | | | | playing field could be drastically different from that |
| physical scientists at the other, likewise caused a | | | | within a non-competitive situation. These |
| stir in 1959. Some intellectuals saw this as | | | | researchers discovered Black and Hispanic |
| evidence of our failing educational system (Miller, | | | | students tend to perform better in classrooms |
| 1983). Gardner responded to this limited scope of | | | | that are not silent. |
| intellectual range by stating, "I think it has to do | | | | The final Intelligence identified by Gardner is |
| with the circumstances under which the | | | | Interpersonal and intrapersonal Intelligence. Briefly, |
| intelligence test was developed. It was developed | | | | Gardner's has identified the absence or presence |
| to predict who would have trouble in school. So | | | | of external (interpersonal), and internal |
| it's basically a scholastic kind of measure, and the | | | | (intrapersonal) social skills as |
| more you try to apply intelligence tests results to | | | | *intelligences.*Cognitive style theorists have |
| milieus like schools - which can include certain kinds | | | | defined these characteristics with the domains of |
| of professional or business organizations-the more | | | | Field Independent and/or Field Dependent |
| appropriate the IQ test is, and the more | | | | characteristics employed by individuals during social |
| appropriate that standard definition is. But, once | | | | encounters (Morgan, 1996). Another contrast with |
| you move to outside of school-like settings, then | | | | Gardner's theory on inter/intra intelligences can be |
| the standard theory of intelligence is much less | | | | found in the work of Bieri (1961) who identified |
| appropriate" (Koch, 1996). | | | | the bimodal cognitive style labeled Cognitive |
| According to Miller, other lists of mental faculties | | | | Complexity vs. Cognitive Simplicity - the |
| were compiled by the school of "common sense | | | | constructs by which individuals define their |
| philosophy" in Scotland and later used in the | | | | personal and social world. These constructs |
| science of phrenology in the German school | | | | compare with Gardner's *capacities to discern and |
| headed by Franz Gall, who identified 35 faculties | | | | respond appropriately to the moods, |
| localized to different parts of the head. However | | | | temperments, and desires of other people" |
| in the middle of the 19th century, the whole | | | | (Morgan, 1996, p. 268). |
| conception of separate faculties was displaced by | | | | With regard to the arguments supporting |
| theories of association of ideas, and even in | | | | cognitive learning styles as opposed to Multiple |
| America, efforts by Horace Mann to keep the | | | | Intelligence, the debate will inevitably continue. |
| school of phrenological alive faded by the close of | | | | Many researchers, educators, and practitioners |
| the 19th century (1983). | | | | have much invested in support of the MI theory. |
| History appears to repeat itself, and according to | | | | Despite the semantical difference in terms |
| Miller, the theory of MI, in its myriad forms, is no | | | | intelligence or cognitive learning styles, the |
| exception. In Frames of Mind, Gardner mentions | | | | overarching benefit of Gardner's work was to |
| the fact Chromsky calls these faculties organs; | | | | silence the proponents of the single factor |
| the philosopher Gerald Fedor calls them modules; | | | | constructs of intelligence. In summary, Miller (1983) |
| the British psychologist Allport calls them | | | | states, "The value of Frames of Mind lies less in |
| production systems. Howard Gardner calls them | | | | the answers it proposes that in the problems it |
| intelligences (1983).The paramount question is, | | | | poses. They are important problems, and time |
| "Are they multiple intelligences or are they | | | | spent thinking about them will be time well spent, |
| cognitive styles?" L.L. Thurstone was among the | | | | whether or not your conclusions agree with Mr. |
| first of the intelligence test makers to suggest | | | | Gardner's." |
| that the human organism was too complex for | | | | References: |
| intellectual activity to be determined solely by a | | | | Bieri, J. (1961) Complexity - Simplicity as a |
| single human factor (Morgan, 1996). As a result | | | | personality variable in cognitive performance |
| Thurstone (1938) developed the Primary Mental | | | | behavior. |
| Abilities test, a multivariate analyses as a method | | | | Functions of Varied Experience. Homewood, Illinois: |
| of measuring intellectual functioning. Thurnstone's | | | | Dorsey Press |
| theory suggested, much to the liking of Gardner, | | | | Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: |
| that intelligence could not be determined by | | | | Basic Books |
| measuring a single ability. The practice of | | | | Gardner, H. & Hatch. (1989). Multiple |
| intelligence testing began to follow the pattern of | | | | Intelligences go to school: Educational implications |
| Thurstone. The work of Gardner has continued in | | | | of the theory of Mulitple Intelligences. |
| similar fashion except perhaps for, semantics. | | | | Educational Researcher 18, (8), 4-10 |
| In analyzing Gardner's seven distinct intelligences | | | | Holtzman, P.S. & Klein, G.S. (1954). Cognitive |
| beginning with logical-mathematical intelligence, one | | | | system principles of leveling and sharpening |
| discovers an interesting parallel to two other | | | | individual differences in assimilation effects in visual |
| cognitive styles. In the 1940s, Briggs and Meyers | | | | time error. Journal of Psychology 37, 105-122 |
| started developing self-report questions that | | | | Kogan, N. (1976). Cognitive Styles In Infancy and |
| would lead to assessments of individual personality | | | | Early Childhood. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum |
| types and their cognitive styles. They expanded | | | | Miller, G. (1983). Varieties of Intelligence. New York |
| cognitive style theory to include typological | | | | Times Review . Dec 25, 5 & 20 |
| constructs from their personality theory. This | | | | Morgan, H. (1996). An Analysis of Gardner's |
| concept has been referred to as the Myers-Briggs | | | | Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Roeper-Review. Vol |
| Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers and McCauley, | | | | 18,4, pp. 263-269 |
| 1985). As mentioned earlier, Gardner categorized | | | | Myers. I. B. and McCauley, M.H. (1985). Manual: A |
| logical-mathematical intelligence as the capacity to | | | | Guide to the Development and Use of the |
| discern logical or numerical patterns and handle | | | | Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, California: |
| long chains of reasoning (Gardner & Hatch, | | | | Consulting Psychologist Press |
| 1989). The MBTI also identified these | | | | Koch, C. (1996). The Bright Stuff. CIO magazine. |
| characteristics as cognitive learning styles | | | | Mar. 15 |
| employed by various personality types (Morgan, | | | | Santostefano, S. G. (1964). A developmental |
| 1996, p. 266). Another learning style, The Field | | | | study of the cognitive control leveling-sharpening. |
| Independent types, approach object relations in an | | | | Merrill- Palmer Quarterly 10. 343-360 |
| analytical manner with the ability to discern | | | | Thurston, L.L. (1938). Primary Mental Abilities. |
| objects as discrete from their context. | | | | |